Introduction
Modern life involves continuous contact with synthetic chemicals.
They are present in food packaging, cosmetics, fragrances, cleaning products, non-stick coatings, textiles, furniture, household dust, pesticides, vehicles and building materials. Most individual exposures occur at low levels. However, exposure is repeated, comes from several sources and continues across the lifespan.
This total exposure is part of the exposome: the combined effect of environmental chemicals, air pollutants, lifestyle factors, stress and biological responses throughout life.
The aim is not to create fear or attempt to remove every synthetic material from daily life, which is neither realistic nor necessary. The most effective strategy is to identify the exposures that occur often, involve direct contact, enter through food or inhalation, and can be changed without major disruption.
The correct order is simple:
- Remove the source
- Reduce contact
- Support the body’s normal defence and elimination systems
Why everyday chemical exposure matters
The toxicological effect of a chemical depends on several variables:
- The substance
- The dose
- The route of exposure
- The duration of exposure
- The frequency of exposure
- The timing of exposure
- Individual susceptibility
- Combined exposure to other chemicals
A substance that creates little concern during occasional contact may become more relevant when exposure occurs every day through food, skin, breathing and household dust.
Risk also differs between people. Children, pregnant women, older adults and people with impaired respiratory, intestinal, liver or kidney function may respond differently from healthy adults. Genetics, nutritional status, inflammation, microbiome composition and total chemical load can also influence susceptibility.
The practical question is therefore not whether a person is “toxic.” The useful question is:
Which repeated exposures contribute most to the total burden, and which of them can be reduced?
The main chemical groups found in everyday life
Phthalates
Phthalates are a group of chemicals used mainly to increase the flexibility of plastics. They can also occur in fragrances, cosmetics, personal care products, vinyl materials, food-contact materials and household products.
Phthalates are not always chemically bound to the material. They can migrate into food, air, dust or skin-contact surfaces.
Common exposure routes include:
- Food and food packaging
- Indoor dust
- Fragrances
- Cosmetics
- Vinyl flooring
- Plastic materials
- Occupational exposure
Phthalates are classified among endocrine-disrupting chemicals because some members of the group can interfere with reproductive hormones, steroidogenesis and developmental processes. The effects differ considerably between individual phthalates, and exposure level matters.(1)
Bisphenols
Bisphenol A, or BPA, has been used in polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. These materials have been used in food containers, can linings, coatings, reusable bottles and thermal paper.
BPA can migrate from food-contact materials, especially when products are heated, worn or exposed to acidic or fatty foods.
Public concern has led manufacturers to replace BPA with related compounds such as BPS and BPF. However, replacing one bisphenol with another does not automatically remove endocrine activity. Structurally similar substitutes may share some biological properties.
Bisphenols can interact with hormone receptors and may influence reproductive, metabolic, and thyroid-related signaling. The strength and clinical importance of these effects depend on the specific compound, dose and exposure period.(1,2)
PFAS compounds
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, or PFAS, include thousands of fluorinated chemicals used for resistance to water, grease, stains and heat.
PFAS compounds have been used in:
- Grease-resistant food packaging
- Non-stick coatings
- Water-resistant clothing
- Stain-resistant textiles
- Firefighting foams
- Cosmetics
- Industrial applications
- Consumer products
Their carbon-fluorine bonds are highly stable. This stability makes many PFAS compounds persistent in the environment and, in some cases, in the human body.
Food-contact materials can contribute to PFAS exposure through direct contamination or migration from packaging into food. Grease-resistant takeaway wrappers, microwave popcorn bags and coated paper products have historically been important areas of concern.(2)
PFAS exposure has been associated in epidemiological research with effects involving lipid metabolism, immune responses, liver function, thyroid regulation and reproduction. Individual compounds differ, and association does not prove that every exposure level causes clinical disease.
Flame retardants
Flame retardants are added to materials to reduce ignition and slow combustion. They may occur in furniture foam, electronics, insulation, vehicle interiors, textiles and building materials.
These chemicals can migrate out of products and accumulate in indoor dust.
Exposure occurs mainly through:
- Dust ingestion
- Hand-to-mouth contact
- Inhalation
- Skin contact
- Occupational environments
Children often receive greater exposure relative to their body weight because they spend more time near floors and engage in more frequent hand-to-mouth behavior.
Some flame retardants have endocrine-disrupting or neurodevelopmental properties. Others have been restricted and replaced with newer compounds whose long-term effects may be less well characterized. Indoor dust can contain both older and replacement flame retardants.(3)
Vehicle interiors can also be relevant. Heat can increase the release of flame retardants and other semivolatile chemicals from seat foam and interior materials. Concentrations may rise when a vehicle remains in warm sunlight.(4)
Pesticides
Food is a major route of pesticide exposure for the general population.
Pesticide residues may occur on fruits, vegetables, grains and other agricultural products. Exposure can also occur through drinking water, residential pesticide use and occupational contact.
Different pesticides have different biological properties. The term “pesticide” includes insecticides, herbicides, fungicides and other compounds with distinct mechanisms.
Controlled diet interventions have shown that switching to an organic diet can reduce urinary metabolites of several pesticides in children and adults. This does not prove that all conventional produce is harmful. It demonstrates that food choices can measurably alter exposure.(5)
The nutritional value of fruits and vegetables remains important. Avoiding vegetables because of pesticide concerns would usually create a larger health disadvantage than consuming conventionally grown produce.
A rational priority is to:
- Eat a wide range of plants
- Wash produce
- Remove damaged outer leaves
- Peel selected produce when practical
- Choose organic versions of frequently eaten foods when feasible
- Avoid unnecessary residential pesticide use
Where chemical exposure occurs
Food-contact materials
Food-contact materials include packaging, storage containers, cookware, coatings, utensils, liners and processing equipment.
Chemical migration can occur when substances move from the material into food. Migration tends to increase with:
- Heat
- Long contact time
- High fat content
- Acidity
- Mechanical wear
- Repeated use
- Ultraviolet exposure
- Damage to the material
Many chemicals are used in food-contact materials, and human exposure is widespread. Not every migrating chemical presents the same risk, but the total number of compounds and the limited toxicological data for many of them justify a practical reduction strategy. (6,7)
The highest-priority situations involve hot, fatty or acidic foods in prolonged contact with plastic or coated materials.
Practical changes
Use glass, stainless steel or ceramic for:
- Hot meals
- Hot drinks
- Oils
- Acidic foods
- Leftovers
- Long-term storage
Avoid heating food in plastic. Replace worn, scratched or damaged containers. Do not reuse disposable packaging for repeated food storage.
Non-stick cookware and coated utensils
Non-stick cookware can reduce the need for cooking fat and may be safe when intact and used correctly. The main concerns arise from overheating, surface damage and degradation of the coating.
Avoid:
- Heating an empty non-stick pan at high temperature
- Using metal utensils that damage the surface
- Continuing to use heavily scratched cookware
- Exposing coated cookware to temperatures beyond its intended range
Stainless steel, cast iron, carbon steel and high-quality ceramic cookware provide alternatives.
Canned foods and epoxy liners
Food cans often use internal coatings to prevent corrosion and direct metal-food contact. Some coatings have historically contained bisphenol-based epoxy resins.
Migration can vary based on the food, coating, processing method and storage time. Choosing fresh, frozen or glass-packed alternatives can reduce frequent contact with can linings.
Occasional consumption of canned food is unlikely to dominate total exposure. Daily use creates a more relevant target for reduction.
Thermal receipts
Thermal paper can contain bisphenols that function as color developers. Skin contact can transfer these compounds, especially when hands are wet, oily or covered with certain cosmetic products.
Practical steps include:
- Decline unnecessary receipts
- Use digital receipts
- Avoid storing receipts with food
- Wash hands before eating after prolonged receipt handling
- Avoid giving receipts to children
Cosmetics and personal care products
Personal care products create direct skin contact. Leave-on products can remain on the skin for hours, while sprays and fragrances also create inhalation exposure.
Potential exposure sources include:
- Perfume
- Deodorant
- Skin cream
- Makeup
- Hair products
- Nail products
- Sunscreen
- Shaving products
- Fragranced hygiene products
Fragrances can contain complex chemical mixtures. Product labels may list these mixtures simply as “fragrance” or “parfum,” without identifying every component.
Synthetic fragrances can contribute to indoor exposure to volatile organic compounds.
Sensitive people may experience irritation, headaches, respiratory symptoms or other reactions after fragranced product exposure. These responses do not prove systemic toxicity, but they demonstrate that fragrance emissions can affect indoor air and susceptible individuals.(8,9)
Occupational studies also show that people who work with perfumes and cosmetics can receive higher phthalate exposure than the general population.(10)
Personal care changes can reduce exposure quickly
The HERMOSA intervention study asked adolescent girls to replace commonly used personal care products with products selected to avoid certain phthalates, parabens, triclosan and benzophenone-3.
Urinary concentrations of several targeted chemicals fell after only three days. This shows that personal care products can contribute meaningfully to short-term chemical exposure and that switching products can rapidly reduce internal exposure.(11)
Start with products that create the greatest contact
Review these first:
- Perfume and fragranced body sprays
- Deodorants
- Leave-on skin products
- Makeup
- Hair products
- Products used daily over large skin areas
Prioritize fragrance-free products with shorter ingredient lists. “Natural” does not guarantee safety, and synthetic does not automatically mean harmful. Evaluate the actual formulation and exposure pattern.
Cleaning products and indoor air
Cleaning changes indoor air chemistry.
Sprays, fragranced cleaners, disinfectants, air fresheners and solvent-containing products can release volatile and semivolatile organic compounds. Chemical reactions between cleaning agents and indoor air can also generate secondary pollutants.
Recent residential measurements show that cleaning can substantially alter indoor concentrations of volatile and semivolatile organic compounds. The degree of exposure depends on the product, amount used, ventilation and method of application.(12)
The main avoidable sources
- Aerosol sprays
- Air fresheners
- Scented candles
- Fragranced laundry products
- Strong solvent cleaners
- Excess disinfectant use
- Mixing cleaning products
- Poor ventilation during cleaning
Never mix bleach with acids or ammonia-containing products. These combinations can produce toxic gases.
A lower-exposure cleaning strategy
Use the least chemically intensive product that completes the task.
For routine cleaning, water, microfibre cloths and a small amount of fragrance-free detergent are often sufficient.
During and after cleaning:
- Open windows when outdoor air quality allows
- Use mechanical ventilation
- Avoid unnecessary sprays
- Apply products to a cloth rather than into the air
- Store products closed
- Do not use air fresheners to cover odors
- Identify and remove the source of the odor
Household dust as a chemical reservoir
Indoor dust collects chemicals released from furniture, electronics, flooring, textiles, plastics, cosmetics and building materials.
Dust can contain:
- Flame retardants
- Phthalates
- PFAS compounds
- Bisphenols
- Pesticides
- Plastic additives
- Metals
- Synthetic fibres
Dust is especially important for children because exposure occurs through hand-to-mouth contact.
The most effective dust-control measures are simple:
- Vacuum with effective particle filtration
- Damp-wipe surfaces
- Wash hands before eating
- Clean areas where children play
- Remove shoes at the entrance
- Maintain ventilation
- Reduce unnecessary chemical sources
Dry dusting may move particles back into the air. Damp cleaning captures them more effectively.
How chemicals can affect biology
Endocrine disruption
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals can interfere with hormone production, transport, metabolism, receptor binding or elimination.
Potential targets include:
- Oestrogen receptors
- Androgen receptors
- Thyroid signalling
- Glucocorticoid pathways
- Insulin signalling
- Reproductive hormone synthesis
Phthalates, bisphenols, PFAS compounds, pesticides and flame retardants include substances with endocrine activity. The mechanisms differ between compounds, and the clinical significance depends on the dose, life stage and duration of exposure.(13)
Fetal development, infancy, puberty, and pregnancy represent periods of increased sensitivity because hormones guide tissue development during these stages.
Oxidative stress
Some environmental chemicals increase the formation of reactive oxygen species or impair antioxidant systems.
Excess oxidative stress can damage:
- Lipids
- Proteins
- DNA
- Cell membranes
- Mitochondria
Oxidative stress is not a disease by itself. It is a biological mechanism that may contribute to tissue dysfunction when exposure exceeds the capacity of cellular defence and repair systems.
Mitochondrial dysfunction
Mitochondria produce ATP and regulate redox balance, inflammation, calcium signaling and programmed cell death.
Environmental chemicals can impair mitochondrial function by:
- Disrupting electron transport
- Increasing reactive oxygen species
- Altering mitochondrial membranes
- Affecting mitochondrial DNA
- Interfering with energy metabolism
A review of recent literature identified mitochondrial dysfunction as a recurring mechanism across several environmental chemical exposures.(14)
This does not mean that low-level exposure automatically causes mitochondrial disease. It means that mitochondria are a biologically plausible target of cumulative environmental stress.
Epithelial barrier dysfunction
The skin, intestinal lining and respiratory epithelium act as controlled barriers between the body and the external environment.
Detergents, preservatives, air pollutants and other environmental factors can weaken epithelial junctions, alter mucus and increase local inflammation.(15,16)
Barrier dysfunction may increase contact between tissues and allergens, microbes or chemicals.
The gut microbiome
Environmental pollutants can influence microbial composition, intestinal metabolites and gut barrier function.
Bisphenol A, phthalates, metals and air pollutants have been associated in experimental research with dysbiosis and altered intestinal permeability.(17)
Human microbiome research remains difficult because diet, medication, sleep, stress and many other exposures act at the same time. Chemicals should be considered one part of the total system.
How the body processes foreign chemicals
The body does not store or eliminate every chemical in the same way.
Water-soluble compounds may leave relatively quickly through urine. Fat-soluble compounds often require enzymatic modification before elimination. Persistent chemicals such as some PFAS compounds can remain in the body for years.
The liver, intestine, kidneys, lungs, skin and bile system all contribute to chemical handling.
Phase I metabolism
Phase I enzymes, including cytochrome P450 enzymes, modify many foreign compounds through oxidation, reduction or hydrolysis.
This process may make a compound easier to eliminate. It can also create reactive intermediates that require further processing.
Phase II metabolism
Phase II pathways attach molecules that increase water solubility and support elimination.
Important pathways include:
- Glucuronidation
- Sulfation
- Glutathione conjugation
- Methylation
- Acetylation
- Amino acid conjugation
These systems require amino acids, micronutrients and adequate cellular energy.(18)
Transport and elimination
After transformation, compounds leave through:
- Urine
- Bile and stool
- Exhaled air
- Sweat, for selected substances
The term “detoxification” should describe these established physiological processes. It should not imply that one supplement can remove every environmental chemical.
Nutrition that supports chemical defence
Nutrition does not cancel exposure. It supports the systems that process reactive compounds, maintain barriers and regulate oxidative stress.
Protein and glutathione synthesis
Glutathione consists of glutamate, cysteine and glycine.
Adequate protein provides the amino acids required for glutathione synthesis. Cysteine availability can limit production in some situations.(19)
Useful protein sources include:
- Eggs
- Fish
- Meat
- Poultry
- Dairy products
- Legumes
- Tofu and tempeh
- Nuts and seeds
Low protein intake, malnutrition or increased oxidative stress may reduce glutathione availability.
Cruciferous vegetables and sulforaphane
Broccoli, broccoli sprouts, kale, cabbage, cauliflower and Brussels sprouts contain glucosinolates.
These compounds can form isothiocyanates such as sulforaphane. Sulforaphane activates Nrf2-regulated antioxidant and phase II defence pathways.(20)
A randomized clinical trial found that a broccoli-sprout beverage increased urinary excretion of metabolites associated with the detoxification of benzene and acrolein. This supports the practical role of cruciferous vegetables in environmental defence. It does not mean that broccoli removes every toxin.(21)
Fiber, bile and stool elimination
Bile carries several metabolized compounds from the liver into the intestine.
Fiber supports stool formation and intestinal transit. It may also reduce the reabsorption of selected compounds that enter the intestine through bile.
Practical fiber sources include:
- Vegetables
- Berries
- Legumes
- Oats
- Psyllium
- Seeds
- Nuts
- Whole grains
Regular bowel function supports normal elimination. Severe constipation can prolong contact between intestinal contents and compounds destined for removal.
Polyphenols
Berries, herbs, spices, cocoa, tea, coffee, and colorful vegetables provide polyphenols.
Polyphenols can influence antioxidant enzymes, inflammatory signaling, microbiome function and cellular stress responses. They should be used as part of a varied diet rather than as isolated “detox” agents.
Supplements: useful support, not a substitute for exposure reduction
N-acetylcysteine
N-acetylcysteine, or NAC, provides cysteine for glutathione synthesis.
Clinical evidence supports the use of NAC in selected conditions associated with oxidative stress or glutathione depletion. The correct dose and indication depend on the individual.(22)
NAC does not remove persistent pollutants from the body on its own.
Glycine and NAC
GlyNAC combines glycine and NAC.
In a randomized trial involving older adults, GlyNAC improved glutathione deficiency, oxidative stress, mitochondrial markers, and several aging-related outcomes.(23)
This evidence supports its use as metabolic support in selected people. It does not prove that GlyNAC removes household chemicals.
Oral glutathione
A six-month randomized trial found that oral glutathione increased glutathione concentrations in several body compartments and changed some immune markers.(24)
Bioavailability varies between products and people. Oral glutathione should be viewed as antioxidant support rather than a universal detoxification treatment.
Micronutrients
Selenium, zinc, magnesium, folate, vitamin B12 and other micronutrients support antioxidant enzymes, methylation, energy metabolism and tissue repair.
Supplementation should correct a deficiency or meet a defined clinical need. High doses can create new problems.
Sauna, sweating and exercise
Sweat can contain selected environmental chemicals and metals.
A human study detected bisphenol A in sweat, urine and blood, showing that sweating can contribute to BPA excretion.(25)
Other studies have measured metals such as nickel, lead, copper, arsenic and mercury in sweat. The amount varies between individuals and sweating conditions.(26)
These findings do not prove that sauna provides comprehensive detoxification. Sweat is a secondary elimination route, and kidneys, liver, bile and stool remain central.
Sauna may still support health through heat adaptation, circulation and cardiovascular effects.(27)
Regular moderate exercise also supports mitochondrial function and the activity of endogenous antioxidant enzymes. Excessive training without recovery can increase oxidative stress, so exercise and recovery must remain balanced.(28)
Sleep, circadian rhythm and stress
Environmental defence depends on recovery.
Sleep deprivation can increase inflammatory activity and impair immune regulation.(29)
Insufficient sleep can also increase oxidative stress, reducing the reserve available to handle other environmental pressures.(30)
Liver enzymes involved in foreign-compound metabolism follow circadian patterns. Regular sleep, meal timing and light-dark exposure support this biological timing.(31)
Chronic stress may also alter drug- and xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes through glucocorticoids, inflammation and microbiome changes.(32)
Sleep and stress management do not remove chemicals. They improve the physiological conditions under which the body processes and responds to exposure.
A practical chemical-exposure reduction plan
Step 1: Start in the kitchen
Prioritize high-contact situations:
- Hot food in plastic
- Fatty food in plastic
- Acidic food in plastic
- Damaged non-stick cookware
- Disposable takeaway packaging
- Frequent canned foods
- Reused single-use containers
Replace these first with glass, stainless steel, cast iron, carbon steel or ceramic.
Step 2: Simplify personal care
Start with products that remain on the skin:
- Perfume
- Deodorant
- Moisturiser
- Makeup
- Hair products
Choose fragrance-free alternatives and reduce the number of products used daily.
Step 3: Reduce cleaning emissions
Remove:
- Air fresheners
- Scented sprays
- Unnecessary disinfectants
- Heavily fragranced laundry products
Use fewer products, smaller amounts and better ventilation.
Step 4: Control dust
Vacuum, damp-wipe surfaces and wash hands before meals.
Pay attention to:
- Bedrooms
- Children’s play areas
- Electronics
- Upholstered furniture
- Carpets
- Vehicle interiors
Step 5: Review food choices
- Continue eating fruits and vegetables.
- Wash produce and choose organic versions of frequently eaten foods when practical.
- Avoid unnecessary pesticide use at home.
Step 6: Support normal physiology
Maintain:
- Sufficient protein
- A fiber-rich diet
- Cruciferous vegetables
- Adequate hydration
- Regular bowel movements
- Consistent sleep
- Moderate exercise
- Appropriate sauna use
- Correction of nutrient deficiencies
What not to do
Do not respond to chemical exposure with extreme restriction.
Avoid:
- Extreme fasting aggressively to “release toxins”
- Using several binders at the same time
- Taking high-dose supplements without a defined need
- Assuming every symptom is caused by chemicals
- Replacing nutritious foods with a restrictive detox diet
- Using unvalidated commercial tests as definitive diagnoses
- Believing that sweat removes all stored chemicals
Persistent chemicals require population-level regulation and source control. Individual lifestyle changes help reduce exposure but cannot solve environmental contamination alone.
The Hololife approach
Chemical health begins with the source.
The first aim is to reduce repeated contact with avoidable chemicals. The second is to maintain healthy biological barriers. The third is to support liver, gut, kidney, antioxidant and elimination systems through nutrition, sleep, movement and recovery.
A supplement cannot compensate for heating food in plastic every day. Sauna cannot compensate for constant exposure to indoor fragrance. Antioxidants cannot replace dust control and ventilation.
The highest-value changes are usually simple:
- Use safer materials around hot food
- Reduce fragranced products
- Improve ventilation
- Control household dust
- Eat a varied, protein-sufficient and fiber-rich diet
- Maintain sleep and bowel regularity
- Use supplements only for a specific reason
The goal is a lower daily burden, stronger physiological resilience and fewer unnecessary exposures over time.
References
- Zlatnik MG. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals and reproductive health. Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health. 2016;61(4):442–455.
- Carnero AR, Lestido-Cardama A, Loureiro PV, Barbosa-Pereira L, de Quirós ARB, Sendón R. Presence of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in food-contact materials and their migration to food. Foods. 2021;10(7):1443.
- Zhu L, Hajeb P, Fauser P, Vorkamp K. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals in indoor dust: A review of temporal and spatial trends and human exposure. Science of the Total Environment. 2023;874:162374.
- Hoehn RM, Jahl LG, Herkert NJ, et al. Flame-retardant exposure in vehicles is influenced by use in seat foam and temperature. Environmental Science & Technology. 2024;58(20):8825–8834.
- Hyland C, Bradman A, Gerona R, Patton S, Zakharevich I, Gunier RB, Klein K. Organic diet intervention significantly reduces urinary pesticide levels in US children and adults. Environmental Research. 2019;171:568–575.
- Geueke B, Parkinson LV, Groh KJ, et al. Evidence for widespread human exposure to food-contact chemicals. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology. 2025;35(3):330–341.
- Muzeza C, Ngole-Jeme V, Msagati TAM. The mechanisms of plastic food-packaging monomer migration into the food matrix and the implications for human health. Foods. 2023;12(18):3364.
- Rádis-Baptista G. Do synthetic fragrances in personal care and household products affect indoor air quality and pose health risks? Journal of Xenobiotics. 2023;13(1):121–131.
- Steinemann A. Fragranced consumer products: Exposures and effects from emissions. Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health. 2016;9(8):861–866.
- Huang PC, Liao KW, Chang JW, Chan SH, Lee CC. Characterisation of phthalate exposure and risk for cosmetics and perfume sales clerks. Environmental Pollution. 2018;233:577–587.
- Harley KG, et al. Reducing phthalate, paraben and phenol exposure from personal care products in adolescent girls: Findings from the HERMOSA intervention study. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2016;124(10):1600–1607.
- Sweet NM, Lunderberg DM, Molinier B, et al. Influence of cleaning on indoor-air concentrations of volatile and semivolatile organic compounds in residences. Environmental Science & Technology. 2025;59(20):10022–10031.
- Gore AC, et al. EDC-2: The Endocrine Society’s second scientific statement on endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Endocrine Reviews. 2015;36(6):E1–E150.
- Reddam A, McLarnan S, Kupsco A. Environmental chemical exposures and mitochondrial dysfunction: A review of recent literature. Current Environmental Health Reports. 2022;9(4):631–649.
- Lee PH, Park S, Lee YG, Choi SM, An MH, Jang AS. The impact of environmental pollutants on barrier dysfunction in respiratory disease. Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Research. 2021;13(6):850–862.
- Sözener ZC, Cevhertas L, Nadeau K, Akdis M, Akdis CA. Environmental factors in epithelial barrier dysfunction. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2020;145(6):1517–1528.
- Singh S, Sharma P, Pal N, et al. Impact of environmental pollutants on the gut microbiome and mental health through the gut-brain axis. Microorganisms. 2022;10(7):1457.
- Hodges RE, Minich DM. Modulation of metabolic detoxification pathways using foods and food-derived components: A scientific review with clinical application. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism. 2015;2015:760689.
- Lu SC. Glutathione synthesis. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta—General Subjects. 2013;1830(5):3143–3153.
- Boddupalli S, Mein JR, Lakkanna S, James DR. Induction of phase 2 antioxidant enzymes by broccoli sulforaphane. Frontiers in Genetics. 2012;3:7.
- Egner PA, et al. Rapid and sustainable detoxication of airborne pollutants by broccoli-sprout beverage: Results of a randomised clinical trial in China. Cancer Prevention Research. 2014;7(8):813–823.
- Tenório MCDS, Graciliano NG, Moura FA, Oliveira ACM, Goulart MOF. N-acetylcysteine: Impacts on human health. Antioxidants. 2021;10(6):967.
- Kumar P, et al. Supplementing glycine and N-acetylcysteine in older adults improves glutathione deficiency, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, physical function and ageing hallmarks: A randomised clinical trial. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A. 2023;78(1):75–89.
- Richie JP, Nichenametla S, Neidig W, et al. Randomised controlled trial of oral glutathione supplementation on body stores of glutathione. European Journal of Nutrition. 2015;54(2):251–263.
- Genuis SJ, Beesoon S, Birkholz D, Lobo RA. Human excretion of bisphenol A: Blood, urine and sweat study. Journal of Environmental and Public Health. 2012;2012:185731.
- Kuan WH, Chen YL, Liu CL. Excretion of nickel, lead, copper, arsenic and mercury in sweat under two sweating conditions. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022;19(7):4323.
- Laukkanen JA, Laukkanen T, Kunutsor SK. Cardiovascular and other health benefits of sauna bathing: A review of the evidence. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2018;93(8):1111–1121.
- Meng Q, Su CH. The impact of physical exercise on oxidative and nitrosative stress: Balancing the benefits and risks. Antioxidants. 2024;13(5):573.
- Garbarino S, Lanteri P, Bragazzi NL, Magnavita N, Scoditti E. Role of sleep deprivation in immune-related disease risk and outcomes. Communications Biology. 2021;4(1):1304.
- Atrooz F, Salim S. Sleep deprivation, oxidative stress and inflammation. Advances in Protein Chemistry and Structural Biology. 2020;119:309–336.
- Zmrzljak UP, Rozman D. Circadian regulation of hepatic endobiotic and xenobiotic detoxification pathways: The time matters. Chemical Research in Toxicology. 2012;25(4):811–824.
- Zemanová N, et al. The role of the microbiome and psychosocial stress in the expression and activity of drug-metabolising enzymes in mice. Scientific Reports. 2020;10(1):8529.